Neumonía adquirida en comunidad

1. World Health Organization. The top 10 causes of death. 2017. http://www. who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/.

2. GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators. Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet 2015;385:117-71. doi:10.1016/S0140- 6736(14)61682-2 pmid:25530442.

3. Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 Collaborators. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet 2015;386:743-800. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60692- 4 pmid:26063472.

4. Weingarten SR, Lloyd L, Chiou CF, Braunstein GD. Do subspecialists working outside of their specialty provide less efficient and lower-quality care to hospitalized patients than do primary care physicians?Arch Intern Med 2002;162:527-32. doi:10.1001/archinte.162.5.527 pmid:11871920.

5. Schappert SM, Burt CW. Ambulatory care visits to physician offices, hospital outpatient departments, and emergency departments: United States, 2001- 02. Vital Health Stat 13 2006;(159):1-66.pmid:16471269.

6. Weiss AJ, Wier LM, Stocks C, Blanchard J. Overview of Emergency Department Visits in the United States, 2011: Statistical Brief #174. 2014. https://www. hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb174-Emergency-Department-Visits- Overview.pdf.

7. Pfuntner A, Wier LM, Stocks C. Most frequent conditions in U.S. hospitals, 2011: Statistical Brief #162. 2013. https://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/ statbriefs/sb162.pdf.

8. Carratalà J, Rosón B, Fernández-Sevilla A, Alcaide F, Gudiol F. Bacteremic pneumonia in neutropenic patients with cancer: causes, empirical antibiotic therapy, and outcome. Arch Intern Med 1998;158:868-72. doi:10.1001/ archinte.158.8.868 pmid:9570172.

9. Cillóniz C, Torres A, Manzardo C, et al. Community-Acquired Pneumococcal Pneumonia in Virologically Suppressed HIV-Infected Adult Patients: A Matched Case-Control Study. Chest 2017;S0012-3692(17)30368- 9.pmid:28302496.

10 Curtis JR, Yang S, Patkar NM, et al. Risk of hospitalized bacterial infections associated with biologic treatment among US veterans with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2014;66:990-7. doi:10.1002/ acr.22281 pmid:24470378.

11. Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America American Thoracic Society. Infectious Diseases Society of America/ American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44(Suppl 2):S27-72. doi:10.1086/511159 pmid:17278083.

12. Kalil AC, Metersky ML, Klompas M, et al. Management of Adults With Hospital-acquired and Ventilator-associated Pneumonia: 2016 Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis 2016;63:e61-111. doi:10.1093/cid/ ciw353 pmid:27418577.

13. Bradley JS, Byington CL, Shah SS, et al. Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. The management of community-acquired pneumonia in infants and children older than 3 months of age: clinical practice guidelines by the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2011;53:e25- 76. doi:10.1093/cid/cir531 pmid:21880587.

14. Jain S, Williams DJ, Arnold SR, et al. CDC EPIC Study Team. Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization among U.S. children. N Engl J Med 2015;372:835-45. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1405870 pmid:25714161.

15. Kochanek KD, Murphy SL, Xu J, Tejada-Vera B. Deaths: Final Data for 2014. Natl Vital Stat Rep 2016;65:1-122.pmid:27378572.

16. Boersma F, Van Den Brink W, Deeg DJ, Eefsting JA, Van Tilburg W. Survival in a population-based cohort of dementia patients: predictors and causes of mortality. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1999;14:748-53. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099- 1166(199909)14:9<748::AID-GPS3>3.0.CO;2-H pmid:10479746.

17. Mitchell SL, Teno JM, Kiely DK, et al. The clinical course of advanced dementia. N Engl J Med 2009;361:1529-38. doi:10.1056/ NEJMoa0902234 pmid:19828530.

18. Sharafkhaneh A, Spiegelman AM, Main K, Tavakoli- Tabasi S, Lan C, Musher D. Mortality in Patients Admitted for Concurrent COPD Exacerbation and Pneumonia. COPD 2017;14:23-9. doi:10.1080/15412555.2016.1220513 pmid:27661473.

19. Jain S, Self WH, Wunderink RG, et al. CDC EPIC Study Team. Community- Acquired Pneumonia Requiring Hospitalization among U.S. Adults. N Engl J Med 2015;373:415-27. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1500245 pmid:26172429.

20. Smith SB, Ruhnke GW, Weiss CH, Waterer GW, Wunderink RG. Trends in pathogens among patients hospitalized for pneumonia from 1993 to 2011. JAMA Intern Med 2014;174:1837-9. doi:10.1001/ jamainternmed.2014.4344 pmid:25200864.

21. Marston BJ, Plouffe JF, File TM Jr, et al. The Community-Based Pneumonia Incidence Study Group. Incidence of community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization. Results of a population-based active surveillance Study in Ohio. Arch Intern Med 1997;157:1709-18. doi:10.1001/ archinte.1997.00440360129015 pmid:9250232.

22. Takahashi K, Suzuki M, Minh N, et al. The incidence and aetiology of hospitalised community-acquired pneumonia among Vietnamese adults: a prospective surveillance in Central Vietnam. BMC Infect Dis 2013;13:296. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-13-296 pmid:23815298.

23. Zingone F, Abdul Sultan A, Crooks CJ, Tata LJ, Ciacci C, West J. The risk of community-acquired pneumonia among 9803 patients with coeliac disease compared to the general population: a cohort study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2016;44:57-67. doi:10.1111/apt.13652 pmid:27151603.

24. Quan TP, Fawcett NJ, Wrightson JM, et al. Infections in Oxfordshire Research Database (IORD). Increasing burden of community-acquired pneumonia leading to hospitalisation, 1998-2014. Thorax 2016;71:535-42. doi:10.1136/thoraxjnl-2015-207688 pmid:26888780.

25. Azmi S, Aljunid SM, Maimaiti N, et al. Assessing the burden of pneumonia using administrative data from Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Int J Infect Dis 2016;49:87-93. doi:10.1016/j. ijid.2016.05.021 pmid:27235085.

26. Rozenbaum MH, Mangen MJ, Huijts SM, van der Werf TS, Postma MJ. Incidence, direct costs and duration of hospitalization of patients hospitalized with community acquired pneumonia: A nationwide retrospective claims database analysis. Vaccine 2015;33:3193-9. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.05.001 pmid:25981488.

27. Ewig S, Birkner N, Strauss R, et al. New perspectives on community-acquired pneumonia in 388 406 patients. Results from a nationwide mandatory performance measurement programme in healthcare quality. Thorax 2009;64:1062-9. doi:10.1136/thx.2008.109785 pmid:19454409.

28. Hopstaken RM, Witbraad T, van Engelshoven JM, Dinant GJ. Inter-observer variation in the interpretation of chest radiographs for pneumonia in community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections. Clin Radiol 2004;59:743-52. doi:10.1016/j.crad.2004.01.011 pmid:15262550.

29. MN, Hill LC, Murphy M, et al. PORT Investigators. Interobserver reliability of the chest radiograph in community-acquired pneumonia. Chest 1996;110:343-50. doi:10.1378/chest.110.2.343 pmid:8697831.

30. Boersma WG, Daniels JM, Löwenberg A, Boeve WJ, van de Jagt EJ. Reliability of radiographic findings and the relation to etiologic agents in community-acquired pneumonia. Respir Med 2006;100:926-32. doi:10.1016/j. rmed.2005.06.018 pmid:16337367.

31. Campbell SG, Murray DD, Hawass A, Urquhart D, Ackroyd- Stolarz S, Maxwell D. Agreement between emergency physician diagnosis and radiologist reports in patients discharged from an emergency department with community-acquired pneumonia. Emerg Radiol 2005;11:242-6. doi:10.1007/s10140-005-0413-4 pmid:16133615.

32. Kanwar M, Brar N, Khatib R, Fakih MG. Misdiagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia and inappropriate utilization of antibiotics: side effects of the 4-h antibiotic administration rule. Chest 2007;131:1865-9. doi:10.1378/ chest.07-0164 pmid:17400668.

33. Claessens YE, Debray MP, Tubach F, et al. Early Chest Computed Tomography Scan to Assist Diagnosis and Guide Treatment Decision for Suspected Community-Acquired Pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2015;192:974-82. doi:10.1164/rccm.201501- 0017OC pmid:26168322.

34. Self WH, Courtney DM, McNaughton CD, Wunderink RG, Kline JA. High discordance of chest x-ray and computed tomography for detection of pulmonary opacities in ED patients: implications for diagnosing pneumonia. Am J Emerg Med 2013;31:401-5. doi:10.1016/j. ajem.2012.08.041 pmid:23083885.

35. Syrjala H, Broas M, Ohtonen P, Jartti A, Pääkkö E. Chest magnetic resonance imaging for pneumonia diagnosis in outpatients with lower respiratory tract infection. Eur Respir J 2017;49:1601303. doi:10.1183/13993003.01303-2016 pmid:27811069.

36. Neroladaki A, Botsikas D, Boudabbous S, Becker CD, Montet X. Computed tomography of the chest with model-based iterative reconstruction using a radiation exposure similar to chest X-ray examination: preliminary observations. Eur Radiol 2013;23:360-6. doi:10.1007/s00330-012- 2627-7 pmid:22892722.

37. Ohana M, Ludes C, Schaal M, et al. [What future for chest x-ray against ultra-low-dose computed tomography?]. Rev Pneumol Clin 2017;73:3-12. doi:10.1016/j.pneumo.2016.09.007 pmid:27956084.

38. Llamas-Álvarez AM, Tenza-Lozano EM, Latour-Pérez J. Accuracy of Lung Ultrasonography in the Diagnosis of Pneumonia in Adults: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Chest 2017;151:374-82. doi:10.1016/j. chest.2016.10.039 pmid:27818332.

39. Bonten MJ, Huijts SM, Bolkenbaas M, et al. Polysaccharide conjugate vaccine against pneumococcal pneumonia in adults. N Engl J Med 2015;372:1114-25. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1408544 pmid:25785969.

40. Jacobs MR, Good CE, Bajaksouzian S, Windau AR. Emergence of Streptococcus pneumoniae serotypes 19A, 6C, and 22F and serogroup 15 in Cleveland, Ohio, in relation to introduction of the protein-conjugated pneumococcal vaccine. Clin Infect Dis 2008;47:1388-95. doi:10.1086/592972 pmid:18959493.

41. Griffin MR, Zhu Y, Moore MR, Whitney CG, Grijalva CGUS. U.S. hospitalizations for pneumonia after a decade of pneumococcal vaccination. N Engl J Med 2013;369:155-63. doi:10.1056/ NEJMoa1209165 pmid:23841730.

42. Holter JC, Müller F, Bjørang O, et al. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia and diagnostic yields of microbiological methods: a 3-year prospective study in Norway. BMC Infect Dis 2015;15:64. doi:10.1186/ s12879-015-0803-5 pmid:25887603.

43. Franz A, Adams O, Willems R, et al. Correlation of viral load of respiratory pathogens and co-infections with disease severity in children hospitalized for lower respiratory tract infection. J Clin Virol 2010;48:239-45. doi:10.1016/j.jcv.2010.05.007 pmid:20646956.

44. van den Hoogen BG, de Jong JC, Groen J, et al. A newly discovered human pneumovirus isolated from young children with respiratory tract disease. Nat Med 2001;7:719-24. doi:10.1038/89098 pmid:11385510.

45. Cilloniz C, Albert RK, Liapikou A, et al. The Effect of Macrolide Resistance on the Presentation and Outcome of Patients Hospitalized for Streptococcus pneumoniae Pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2015;191:1265-72. doi:10.1164/rccm.201502-0212OC pmid:25807239.

46. Pereyre S, Goret J, Bébéar C. Mycoplasma pneumoniae: Current Knowledge on Macrolide Resistance and Treatment. Front Microbiol 2016;7:974. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2016.00974 pmid:27446015.

47. Defres S, Marwick C, Nathwani D. MRSA as a cause of lung infection including airway infection, community-acquired pneumonia and hospital-acquired pneumonia. Eur Respir J 2009;34:1470-6. doi:10.1183/09031936.00122309 pmid:19948913.

48. Self WH, Wunderink RG, Williams DJ, et al. Staphylococcus aureus Community-acquired Pneumonia: Prevalence, Clinical Characteristics, and Outcomes. Clin Infect Dis 2016;63:300-9. doi:10.1093/cid/ ciw300 pmid:27161775.

49. Metersky ML, Frei CR, Mortensen EM. Predictors of Pseudomonas and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in hospitalized patients with healthcare-associated pneumonia. Respirology 2016;21:157-63. doi:10.1111/resp.12651 pmid:26682638.

50. Lobo LJ, Reed KD, Wunderink RG. Expanded clinical presentation of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia. Chest 2010;138:130-6. doi:10.1378/chest.09- 1562 pmid:20173050.

51. Gillet Y, Issartel B, Vanhems P, et al. Association between Staphylococcus aureus strains carrying gene for Panton-Valentine leukocidin and highly lethal necrotising pneumonia in young immunocompetent patients. Lancet 2002;359:753-9. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07877- 7 pmid:11888586.

52. Brown ML, O’Hara FP, Close NM, et al. Prevalence and sequence variation of panton-valentine leukocidin in methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible staphylococcus aureus strains in the United States. J Clin Microbiol 2012;50:86-90. doi:10.1128/JCM.05564-11 pmid:22090402.

53. Hidron AI, Low CE, Honig EG, Blumberg HM. Emergence of community-acquired meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strain USA300 as a cause of necrotising community-onset pneumonia. Lancet Infect Dis 2009;9:384-92. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70133- 1 pmid:19467478.

54. Trevino SE, Pence MA, Marschall J, Kollef MH, Babcock HM, Burnham CD. Rapid MRSA PCR on respiratory specimens from ventilated patients with suspected pneumonia: a tool to facilitate antimicrobial stewardship. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2017;36:879-85. doi:10.1007/s10096-016- 2876-5 pmid:28004323.

55. Baby N, Faust AC, Smith T, Sheperd LA, Knoll L, Goodman EL. Nasal Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) PCR Testing Reduces the Duration of MRSA-Targeted Therapy in Patients with Suspected MRSA Pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2017;61:e02432-16. doi:10.1128/AAC.02432-16 pmid:28137813.

56. Einarsson GG, Comer DM, McIlreavey L, et al. Community dynamics and the lower airway microbiota in stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, smokers and healthy non-smokers. Thorax 2016;71:795-803. doi:10.1136/thoraxjnl-2015-207235 pmid:27146202.

57. Charlson ES, Bittinger K, Haas AR, et al. Topographical continuity of bacterial populations in the healthy human respiratory tract. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;184:957-63. doi:10.1164/rccm.201104- 0655OC pmid:21680950.

58. Dickson RP, Erb-Downward JR, Huffnagle GB. Towards an ecology of the lung: new conceptual models of pulmonary microbiology and pneumonia pathogenesis. Lancet Respir Med 2014;2:238-46. doi:10.1016/S2213- 2600(14)70028-1 pmid:24621685.

59. Maskell NA, Batt S, Hedley EL, Davies CW, Gillespie SH, Davies RJ. The bacteriology of pleural infection by genetic and standard methods and its mortality significance. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006;174:817-23. doi:10.1164/rccm.200601-074OC pmid:16840746.

60. Pertel PE, Bernardo P, Fogarty C, et al. Effects of prior effective therapy on the efficacy of daptomycin and ceftriaxone for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 2008;46:1142-51. doi:10.1086/533441 pmid:18444848.

61. Christ-Crain M, Stolz D, Bingisser R, et al. Procalcitonin guidance of antibiotic therapy in community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006;174:84-93. doi:10.1164/rccm.200512- 1922OC pmid:16603606.

62. Schuetz P, Christ-Crain M, Thomann R, et al. ProHOSP Study Group. Effect of procalcitonin-based guidelines vs standard guidelines on antibiotic use in lower respiratory tract infections: the ProHOSP randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2009;302:1059-66. doi:10.1001/ jama.2009.1297 pmid:19738090.

63. Diaz MH, Cross KE, Benitez AJ, et al. Identification of Bacterial and Viral Codetections With Mycoplasma pneumoniae Using the TaqMan Array Card in Patients Hospitalized With Community-Acquired Pneumonia. Open Forum Infect Dis 2016;3:ofw071. doi:10.1093/ofid/ ofw071 pmid:27191004.

64. Weiss K, Tillotson GS. Fluoroquinolones for respiratory infection: too valuable to overuse (and too valuable to misuse!). Chest 2002;122:1102- 3, author reply 1103. doi:10.1378/chest.122.3.1102 pmid:12226065.

65. Nie W, Li B, Xiu Q. β-Lactam/macrolide dual therapy versus β-lactam monotherapy for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014;69:1441-6. doi:10.1093/jac/dku033 pmid:24535276.

66. Vardakas KZ, Siempos II, Grammatikos A, Athanassa Z, Korbila IP, Falagas ME. Respiratory fluoroquinolones for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. CMAJ 2008;179:1269-77. doi:10.1503/cmaj.080358 pmid:19047608.

67. Gattarello S, Borgatta B, Solé-Violán J, et al. Community-Acquired Pneumonia en la Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos II Study Investigators*. Decrease in mortality in severe community-acquired pneumococcal pneumonia: impact of improving antibiotic strategies (2000-2013). Chest 2014;146:22-31. doi:10.1378/chest.13-1531 pmid:24371840.

68. Brown RB, Iannini P, Gross P, Kunkel M. Impact of initial antibiotic choice on clinical outcomes in community-acquired pneumonia: analysis of a hospital claims-made database. Chest 2003;123:1503-11. doi:10.1378/ chest.123.5.1503 pmid:12740267.

69. Meehan TP, Fine MJ, Krumholz HM, et al. Quality of care, process, and outcomes in elderly patients with pneumonia. JAMA 1997;278:2080-4. doi:10.1001/jama.1997.03550230056037 pmid:9403422.

70. Metersky ML, Ma A, Houck PM, Bratzler DW. Antibiotics for bacteremic pneumonia: Improved outcomes with macrolides but not fluoroquinolones. Chest 2007;131:466-73. doi:10.1378/chest.06-1426 pmid:17296649.

71. Sligl WI, Asadi L, Eurich DT, Tjosvold L, Marrie TJ, Majumdar SR. Macrolides and mortality in critically ill patients with community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 2014;42:420-32. doi:10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182a66b9b pmid:24158175.

72. Garin N, Genné D, Carballo S, et al. β-Lactam monotherapy vs β-lactam-macrolide combination treatment in moderately severe community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized noninferiority trial. JAMA Intern Med 2014;174:1894-901. doi:10.1001/ jamainternmed.2014.4887 pmid:25286173.

73. Halm EA, Fine MJ, Marrie TJ, et al. Time to clinical stability in patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia: implications for practice guidelines. JAMA 1998;279:1452-7. doi:10.1001/ jama.279.18.1452 pmid:9600479.

74. Mandell LA, Waterer GW. Empirical Therapy of Community-Acquired Pneumonia: Advancing Evidence or Just More Doubt?JAMA 2015;314:396- 7. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.3858 pmid:26219057.

75. Postma DF, van Werkhoven CH, van Elden LJ, et al. CAP-START Study Group. Antibiotic treatment strategies for community-acquired pneumonia in adults. N Engl J Med 2015;372:1312-23. doi:10.1056/ NEJMoa1406330 pmid:25830421.

76. Taboada M, Melnick D, Iaconis JP, et al. Ceftaroline fosamil versus ceftriaxone for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia: individual patient data meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Antimicrob Chemother 2016;71:862-70. doi:10.1093/jac/dkv415 pmid:26702925.

77. Perry TW, Pugh MJ, Waterer GW, et al. Incidence of cardiovascular events after hospital admission for pneumonia. Am J Med 2011;124:244-51. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2010.11.014 pmid:21396508.

78. Ray WA, Murray KT, Hall K, Arbogast PG, Stein CM. Azithromycin and the risk of cardiovascular death. N Engl J Med 2012;366:1881-90. doi:10.1056/ NEJMoa1003833 pmid:22591294.

79. Raeven VM, Spoorenberg SM, Boersma WG, et al. Alkmaar study group Ovidius study group. Atypical aetiology in patients hospitalised with community-acquired pneumonia is associated with age, gender and season; a data-analysis on four Dutch cohorts. BMC Infect Dis 2016;16:299. doi:10.1186/s12879-016-1641-9 pmid:27317257.

80. Mortensen EM, Coley CM, Singer DE, et al. Causes of death for patients with community-acquired pneumonia: results from the Pneumonia Patient Outcomes Research Team cohort study. Arch Intern Med 2002;162:1059- 64. doi:10.1001/archinte.162.9.1059 pmid:11996618.

81. Simpson JC, Macfarlane JT, Watson J, Woodhead MA. British Thoracic Society Research Committee and Public Health Laboratory Service. A national confidential enquiry into community acquired pneumonia deaths in young adults in England and Wales. Thorax 2000;55:1040-5. doi:10.1136/ thorax.55.12.1040 pmid:11083890.

82. Metersky ML, Waterer G, Nsa W, Bratzler DW. Predictors of in-hospital vs postdischarge mortality in pneumonia. Chest 2012;142:476-81. doi:10.1378/chest.11-2393 pmid:22383662.