Actualización. | 12 SEP 16

Hipertiroidismo

Patogénesis, diagnóstico y tratamiento del hipertiroidismo.
Autor/a: Simone De Leo, Sun Y Lee, Lewis E Braverman.  
INDICE:  1. Página 1 | 2. Página 2
Página 2

Referencias

1 Hedberg CW, Fishbein DB, Janssen RS, et al. An outbreak of thyrotoxicosis caused by the consumption of bovine thyroid gland in ground beef. N Engl J Med 1987; 316: 993–98.
2 Cooper DS, Biondi B. Subclinical thyroid disease. Lancet 2012; 379: 1142–54.
3 Garmendia Madariaga A, Santos Palacios S, Guillen-Grima F, Galofre JC. The incidence and prevalence of thyroid dysfunction in Europe: a meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014; 99: 923–31.
4 Hollowell JG, Staehling NW, Flanders WD, et al. Serum TSH, T(4), and thyroid antibodies in the United States population (1988 to 1994): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87: 489–99.
5 Vejbjerg P, Knudsen N, Perrild H, et al. Lower prevalence of mild hyperthyroidism related to a higher iodine intake in the population: prospective study of a mandatory iodization programme. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2009; 71: 440–45.
6 Nystrom HF, Jansson S, Berg G. Incidence rate and clinical features of hyperthyroidism in a long-term iodine suffi cient area of Sweden (Gothenburg) 2003-2005. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2013; 78: 768–76.
7 Abraham-Nordling M, Bystrom K, Torring O, et al. Incidence of hyperthyroidism in Sweden. Eur J Endocrinol 2011; 165: 899–905.
8 Marino M, Latrofa F, Menconi F, Chiovato L, Vitti P. Role of genetic and non-genetic factors in the etiology of Graves’ disease. J Endocrinol Invest 2015; 38: 283–94.
9 Winsa B, Adami HO, Bergstrom R, et al. Stressful life events and Graves’ disease. Lancet 1991; 338: 1475–79.
10 Wiersinga WM. Smoking and thyroid. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2013; 79: 145–51.
11 Menconi F, Marcocci C, Marino M. Diagnosis and classifi cation of Graves’ disease. Autoimmun Rev 2014; 13: 398–402.
12 McLeod DS, Cooper DS. The incidence and prevalence of thyroid autoimmunity. Endocrine 2012; 42: 252–65.
13 Brix TH, Hegedus L. Twin studies as a model for exploring the aetiology of autoimmune thyroid disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2012; 76: 457–64.
14 Laurberg P, Cerqueira C, Ovesen L, et al. Iodine intake as a determinant of thyroid disorders in populations. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 24: 13–27.
15 Krohn K, Paschke R. Clinical review 133: progress in understanding the etiology of thyroid autonomy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86: 3336–45.
16 Paschke R, Ludgate M. The thyrotropin receptor in thyroid diseases. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 1675–81.
17 Beck-Peccoz P, Persani L. Thyrotropin-induced thyrotoxicosis. In: Braverman LE, Cooper DS, eds. Werner & Ingbar’s the thyroid: a fundamental and clinical text. 10th edn. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2013: 393–99.
18 Hershman JM. Trophoblastic tumors. In: Braverman LE, Cooper DS, eds. Werner & Ingbar’s the thyroid: a fundamental and clinical text. 10th edn. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2013: 409–14.
19 Fatourechi V, Aniszewski JP, Fatourechi GZ, Atkinson EJ, Jacobsen SJ. Clinical features and outcome of subacute thyroiditis in an incidence cohort: Olmsted County, Minnesota, study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88: 2100–05.
20 Schwartz F, Bergmann N, Zerahn B, Faber J. Incidence rate of symptomatic painless thyroiditis presenting with thyrotoxicosis in Denmark as evaluated by consecutive thyroid scintigraphies. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 2013; 73: 240–44.
21 Goichot B, Caron P, Landron F, Bouee S. Clinical presentation of hyperthyroidism in a large representative sample of outpatients in France: relationships with age, aetiology and hormonal parameters. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2015; published online May 9.DOI:10.1111/cen.12816.
22 Devereaux D, Tewelde SZ. Hyperthyroidism and thyrotoxicosis. Emerg Med Clin North Am 2014; 32: 277–92.
23 Boelaert K, Torlinska B, Holder RL, Franklyn JA. Older subjects with hyperthyroidism present with a paucity of symptoms and signs: a large cross-sectional study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95: 2715–26.
24 Bartalena L, Fatourechi V. Extrathyroidal manifestations of Graves’ disease: a 2014 update. J Endocrinol Invest 2014; 37: 691–700.
25 Bartalena L, Baldeschi L, Dickinson AJ, et al. Consensus statement of the European Group on Graves’ Orbitopathy (EUGOGO) on management of Graves’ orbitopathy. Thyroid 2008; 18: 333–46.
26 Bahn R. The EUGOGO consensus statement on the management of Graves’ orbitopathy: equally applicable to North American clinicians and patients. Thyroid 2008; 18: 281–82.
27 Wiersinga WM, Perros P, Kahaly GJ, et al, and the European Group on Graves’ Orbitopathy (EUGOGO). Clinical assessment of patients with Graves’ orbitopathy: the European Group on Graves’ Orbitopathy recommendations to generalists, specialists and clinical researchers. Eur J Endocrinol 2006; 155: 387–89.
28 Fatourechi V. Thyroid dermopathy and acropachy. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 26: 553–65.
29 Schwartz KM, Fatourechi V, Ahmed DD, Pond GR. Dermopathy of Graves’ disease (pretibial myxedema): long-term outcome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87: 438–46.
30 Fatourechi V, Ahmed DD, Schwartz KM. Thyroid acropachy: report of 40 patients treated at a single institution in a 26-year period. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87: 5435–41.
31 Sawin CT, Geller A, Wolf PA, et al. Low serum thyrotropin concentrations as a risk factor for atrial fi brillation in older persons. N Engl J Med 1994; 331: 1249–52.
32 Chen Q, Yan Y, Zhang L, Cheng K, Liu Y, Zhu W. Eff ect of hyperthyroidism on the hypercoagulable state and thromboembolic events in patients with atrial fi brillation. Cardiology 2014; 127: 176–82.
33 Biondi B, Kahaly GJ. Cardiovascular involvement in patients with diff erent causes of hyperthyroidism. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2010; 6: 431–43.
34 Traube E, Coplan NL. Embolic risk in atrial fi brillation that arises from hyperthyroidism: review of the  medical literature. Tex Heart Inst J 2011; 38: 225–28.
35 Siu CW, Yeung CY, Lau CP, Kung AW, Tse HF. Incidence, clinical characteristics and outcome of congestive heart failure as the initial presentation in patients with primary hyperthyroidism. Heart 2007; 93: 483–87.
36 Selmer C, Olesen JB, Hansen ML, et al. Subclinical and overt thyroid dysfunction and risk of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events: a large population study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014; 99: 2372–82.
37 Vijayakumar A, Ashwath G, Thimmappa D. Thyrotoxic periodic paralysis: clinical challenges. J Thyroid Res 2014; 2014: 649502.
38 Ryan DP, da Silva MR, Soong TW, et al. Mutations in potassium channel Kir2.6 cause susceptibility to thyrotoxic hypokalemic periodic paralysis. Cell 2010; 140: 88–98.
39 Abe E, Marians RC, Yu W, et al. TSH is a negative regulator of skeletal remodeling. Cell 2003; 115: 151–62.
40 Meikle AW. The interrelationships between thyroid dysfunction and hypogonadism in men and boys. Thyroid 2004; 14 (suppl 1): S17–25.
41 Krassas GE, Poppe K, Glinoer D. Thyroid function and human reproductive health. Endocr Rev 2010; 31: 702–55.
42 de los Santos ET, Starich GH, Mazzaferri EL. Sensitivity, specifi city, and cost-eff ectiveness of the sensitive thyrotropin assay in the diagnosis of thyroid disease in ambulatory patients. Arch Intern Med 1989; 149: 526–32.
43 Vaidya B, Pearce SH. Diagnosis and management of thyrotoxicosis. BMJ 2014; 349: g5128.
44 Bahn Chair RS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, et al, and the American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Hyperthyroidism and o ther causes of thyrotoxicosis: management guidelines of the American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Thyroid 2011; 21: 593–646.
45 Kahaly GJ, Bartalena L, Hegedus L. The American Thyroid Association/American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists guidelines for hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis: a European perspective. Thyroid 2011; 21: 585–91.
46 Burch HB, Burman KD, Cooper DSA. A 2011 survey of clinical practice patterns in the management of Graves’ disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97: 4549–58.
47 Yamashita S, Amino N, Shong YK. The American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis guidelines: viewpoints from Japan and Korea. Thyroid 2011; 21: 577–80.
48 Moon JH, Yi KH. The diagnosis and management of hyperthyroidism in Korea: consensus report of the Korean Thyroid Association. Endocrinol Metab (Seoul) 2013; 28: 275–79.
49 Maia AL, Scheff el RS, Meyer EL, et al, and the Brazilian Society of Endocrinology and Metabolism. The Brazilian consensus for the diagnosis and treatment of hyperthyroidism: recommendations by the Thyroid Department of the Brazilian Society of Endocrinology and Metabolism. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol 2013;57: 205–32.
50 Cappelli C, Pirola I, De Martino E, et al. The role of imaging in Graves’ disease: a cost-eff ectiveness analysis. Eur J Radiol 2008; 65: 99–103.
51 Ota H, Amino N, Morita S, et al. Quantitative measurement of thyroid blood fl ow for diff erentiation of painless thyroiditis from Graves’ disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2007; 67: 41–45.
52 Tozzoli R, Bagnasco M, Giavarina D, Bizzaro N. TSH receptor autoantibody immunoassay in patients with Graves’ disease: improvement of diagnostic accuracy over diff erent generations of methods. Systematic review and meta-analysis. Autoimmun Rev 2012; 12: 107–13.
53 Barbesino G, Tomer Y. Clinical review: Clinical utility of TSH receptor antibodies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013; 98: 2247–55.
54 van Soestbergen MJ, van der Vijver JC, Graafl and AD. Recurrence of hyperthyroidism in multinodular goiter after long-term drug therapy: a comparison with Graves’ disease. J Endocrinol Invest 1992; 15: 797–800.
55 Bartalena L. Diagnosis and management of Graves disease: a global overview. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2013; 9: 724–34.
56 Cooper DS. Antithyroid drugs. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 905–17.
57 Koenig RJ. Regulation of type 1 iodothyronine deiodinase in health and disease. Thyroid 2005; 15: 835–40.
58 Antonelli A, Ferrari SM, Corrado A, Ferrannini E, Fallahi P. Increase of interferon-γ inducible CXCL9 and CXCL11 serum levels in patients with active Graves’ disease and modulation by methimazole therapy. Thyroid 2013; 23: 1461–69.
59 Nakamura H, Noh JY, Itoh K, Fukata S, Miyauchi A, Hamada N. Comparison of methimazole and propylthiouracil in patients with hyperthyroidism caused by Graves’ disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92: 2157–62.
60 Okamura K, Ikenoue H, Shiroozu A, Sato K, Yoshinari M, Fujishima M. Reevaluation of the eff ects of methylmercaptoimidazole and propylthiouracil in patients with Graves’ hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987; 65: 719–23.
61 Kim HJ, Kim BH, Han YS, et al. The incidence and clinical characteristics of symptomatic propylthiouracil-induced hepatic injury in patients with hyperthyroidism: a single-center retrospective study. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96: 165–69.
62 Rivkees SA, Mattison DR. Propylthiouracil (PTU) hepatoxicity in children and recommendations for discontinuation of use. Int J Pediatr Endocrinol 2009; 2009: 132041.
63 Bahn RS, Burch HS, Cooper DS, et al. The role of propylthiouracil in the management of Graves’ disease in adults: report of a meeting jointly sponsored by the American Thyroid Association and the Food and Drug Administration. Thyroid 2009; 19: 673–74.
64 Takata K, Amino N, Kubota S, et al. Benefi t of short-term iodide supplementation to antithyroid drug treatment of thyrotoxicosis due to Graves’ disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2010; 72: 845–50.
65 Sato S, Noh JY, Sato S, et al. Comparison of effi cacy and adverse eff ects between methimazole 15 mg+inorganic iodine 38 mg/day and methimazole 30 mg/day as initial therapy for Graves’ disease patients with moderate to severe hyperthyroidism. Thyroid 2015; 25: 43–50.
66 Benker G, Reinwein D, Kahaly G, et al, and the European Multicentre Trial Group of the Treatment of Hyperthyroidism with Antithyroid Drugs. Is there a methimazole dose eff ect on remission rate in Graves’ disease? Results from a long-term prospective study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1998; 49: 451–57.
67 Abraham P, Avenell A, McGeoch SC, Clark LF, Bevan JS. Antithyroid drug regimen for treating Graves’ hyperthyroidism. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010; 1: CD003420.
68 Razvi S, Vaidya B, Perros P, Pearce SH. What is the evidence behind the evidence-base? The premature death of block-replace antithyroid drug regimens for Graves’ disease. Eur J Endocrinol2006; 154: 783–86.
69 Allannic H, Fauchet R, Orgiazzi J, et al. Antithyroid drugs and Graves’ disease: a prospective randomized evaluation of the effi cacy of treatment duration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990; 70: 675–79.
70 Anagnostis P, Adamidou F, Polyzos SA, et al. Predictors of long-term remission in patients with Graves’ disease: a single center experience. Endocrine 2013; 44: 448–53.
71 Mohlin E, Filipsson Nystrom H, Eliasson M. Long-term prognosis after medical treatment of Graves’ disease in a northern Swedish population 2000–2010. Eur J Endocrinol 2014; 170: 419–27.
72 Laurberg P, Krejbjerg A, Andersen SL. Relapse following antithyroid drug therapy for Graves’ hyperthyroidism. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2014; 21: 415–21.
73 Azizi F. The safety and effi cacy of antithyroid drugs. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2006; 5: 107–16.
74 Quadbeck B, Hoermann R, Roggenbuck U, Hahn S, Mann K, Janssen OE, and the Basedow Study Group. Sensitive thyrotropin and thyrotropin-receptor antibody determinations one month after discontinuation of antithyroid drug treatment as predictors of relapse in Graves’ disease. Thyroid 2005; 15: 1047–54.
75 Schott M, Morgenthaler NG, Fritzen R, et al. Levels of autoantibodies against human TSH receptor predict relapse of hyperthyroidism in Graves’ disease. Horm Metab Res 2004; 36: 92–96.
76 Carella C, Mazziotti G, Sorvillo F, et al. Serum thyrotropin receptor antibodies concentrations in patients with Graves’ disease before, at the end of methimazole treatment, and after drug withdrawal: evidence that the activity of thyrotropin receptor antibody and/or thyroid response modify during the observation period. Thyroid 2006; 16: 295–302.
77 Liu X, Qiang W, Liu X, et al. A second course of antithyroid drug therapy for recurrent Graves’ disease: an experience in endocrine practice. Eur J Endocrinol 2015; 172: 321–26
78 Otsuka F, Noh JY, Chino T, et al. Hepatotoxicity and cutaneous reactions after antithyroid drug administration. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2012; 77: 310–15.
79 Robinson J, Richardson M, Hickey J, et al. Patient knowledge of antithyroid drug-induced agranulocytosis. Eur Thyroid J 2014;3: 245–51.
80 Nakamura H, Miyauchi A, Miyawaki N, Imagawa J. Analysis of 754 cases of antithyroid drug-induced agranulocytosis over 30 years in Japan. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013; 98: 4776–83.
81 Watanabe N, Narimatsu H, Noh JY, et al. Antithyroid drug-induced hematopoietic damage: a retrospective cohort study of agranulocytosis and pancytopenia involving 50,385 patients with Graves’ disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97: E49–53.
82 Wang MT, Lee WJ, Huang TY, Chu CL, Hsieh CH. Antithyroid drug-related hepatotoxicity in hyperthyroidism patients: a population-based cohort study. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2014; 78: 619–29.
83 Rivkees SA, Szarfman A. Dissimilar hepatotoxicity profi les of propylthiouracil and methimazole in children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95: 3260–67.
84 Noh JY, Yasuda S, Sato S, et al. Clinical characteristics of myeloperoxidase antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis caused by antithyroid drugs. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 94: 2806–11.
85 Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Bogazzi F, et al. Relation between therapy for hyperthyroidism and the course of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 73–78.
86 Chen DY, Schneider PF, Zhang XS, Luo XY, He ZM, Chen TH. Changes in Graves’ ophthalmopathy after radioiodine and anti-thyroid drug treatment of Graves’ disease from 2 prospective, randomized, open-label, blinded end point studies. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2014; 122: 1–6.
87 Watanabe N, Noh JY, Kozaki A, et al. Radioiodine-associated exacerbation of Graves’ orbitopathy in the Japanese population: randomized prospective study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015;100: 2700–08.
88 Acharya SH, Avenell A, Philip S, Burr J, Bevan JS, Abraham P. Radioiodine therapy (RAI) for Graves’ disease (GD) and the eff ect on ophthalmopathy: a systematic review. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2008; 69: 943–50.
89 Traisk F, Tallstedt L, Abraham-Nordling M, et al, and the Thyroid Study Group of TT 96. Thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy after treatment for Graves’ hyperthyroidism with antithyroid drugs or iodine-131. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 94: 3700–07.
90 Tallstedt L, Lundell G, Torring O, et al, and the The Thyroid Study Group. Occurrence of ophthalmopathy after treatment for Graves’ hyperthyroidism. N Engl J Med 1992; 326: 1733–38.
91 Eckstein AK, Plicht M, Lax H, et al. Thyro tropin receptor autoantibodies are independent risk factors for Graves’ ophthalmopathy and help to predict severity and outcome of the disease. J Clin End ocrinol Metab 2006; 91: 3464–70.
92 Stan MN, Durski JM, Brito JP, Bhagra S, Thapa P, Bahn RS. Cohort study on radioactive iodine-induced hypothyroidism: implications for Graves’ ophthalmopathy and optimal timing for thyroid hormone assessment. Thyroid 2013; 23: 620–25.
93 Shiber S, Stiebel-Kalish H, Shimon I, Grossman A, Robenshtok E. Glucocorticoid regimens for prevention of Graves’ ophthalmopathy progression following radioiodine treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis. Thyroid 2014; 24: 1515–23.
94 Andrade VA, Gross JL, Maia AL. The eff ect of methimazole pretreatment on the effi cacy of radioactive iodine therapy in Graves’ hyperthyroidism: one-year follow-up of a prospective, randomized study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86: 3488–93.
95 Burch HB, Solomon BL, Cooper DS, Ferguson P, Walpert N, Howard R. The eff ect of antithyroid drug pretreatment on acute changes in thyroid hormone levels after (131)I ablation for Graves’ disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86: 3016–21.
96 Walter MA, Briel M, Christ-Crain M, et al. Eff ects of antithyroid drugs on radioiodine treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2007; 334: 514.
97 Santos RB, Romaldini JH, Ward LS. Propylthiouracil reduces the effectiveness of radioiodine treatment in hyperthyroid patients with Graves’ disease. Thyroid 2004; 14: 525–30.
98 Walter MA, Christ-Crain M, Schindler C, Muller-Brand J, Muller B. Outcome of radioiodine therapy without, on or 3 days off carbimazole: a prospective interventional three-group comparison. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2006; 33: 730–37.
99 de Rooij A, Vandenbroucke JP, Smit JW, Stokkel MP, Dekkers OM. Clinical outcomes after estimated versus calculated activity of radioiodine for the treatment of hyperthyroidism: systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Endocrinol 2009; 161: 771–77.
100 Rokni H, Sadeghi R, Moossavi Z, Treglia G, Zakavi SR. Effi cacy of diff erent protocols of radioiodine therapy for treatment of toxic nodular goiter: systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature. Int J Endocrinol Metab 2014; 12: e14424.
101 Boelaert K, Syed AA, Manji N, et al. Prediction of cure and risk of hypothyroidism in patients receiving 131I for hyperthyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2009; 70: 129–38.
102 Alexander EK, Larsen PR. High dose of (131)I therapy for the treatment of hyperthyroidism caused by Graves’ disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87: 1073–77.
103 Ross DS. Radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism. N Engl J Med 2011; 364: 542–50.
104 Bonnema SJ, Hegedus L. Radioiodine therapy in benign thyroid diseases: eff ects, side eff ects, and factors aff ecting therapeutic outcome. Endocr Rev 2012; 33: 920–80.
105 la Cour JL, Jensen LT, Vej-Hansen A, Nygaard B. Radioiodine therapy increases the risk of cerebrovascular events in hyperthyroid and euthyroid patients. Eur J Endocrinol 2015;172: 771–78.
106 Ryodi E, Metso S, Jaatinen P, et al. Cancer incidence and mortality in patients treated either with RAI or thyroidectomy for hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015; 100: 3710–17.
107 Ceccarelli C, Canale D, Battisti P, et al. Testicular function after 131I therapy for hyperthyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2006;65: 446–52.
108 Genovese BM, Noureldine SI, Gleeson EM, Tufano RP, Kandil E. What is the best defi nitive treatment for Graves’ disease? A systematic review of the existing literature. Ann Surg Oncol 2013;20: 660–67.
109 Bojic T, Paunovic I, Diklic A, et al. Total thyroidectomy as a method of choice in the treatment of Graves’ disease—analysis of 1432 patients. BMC Surg 2015; 15: 39.
110 Palit TK, Miller CC 3rd, Miltenburg DM. The effi cacy of thyroidectomy for Graves’ disease: a meta-analysis. J Surg Res 2000;90: 161–65.
111 Shinall MC Jr, Broome JT, Baker A, Solorzano CC. Is potassium iodide solution necessary before total thyroidectomy for Graves disease? Ann Surg Oncol 2013; 20: 2964–67.
112 Erbil Y, Ozluk Y, Giriş M, et al. Eff ect of lugol solution on thyroid gland blood fl ow and microvessel density in the patients with Graves’ disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92: 2182–89.
113 Werga-Kjellman P, Zedenius J, Tallstedt L, Traisk F, Lundell G, Wallin G. Surgical treatment of hyperthyroidism: a ten-year experience. Thyroid 2001; 11: 187–92.
114 Pradeep PV, Agarwal A, Baxi M, Agarwal G, Gupta SK, Mishra SK. Safety and effi cacy of surgical management of hyperthyroidism: 15-year experience from a tertiary care center in a developing country. World J Surg 2007; 31: 306–12, discussion 313.
115 Kandil E, Noureldine SI, Abbas A, Tufano RP. The impact of surgical volume on patient outcomes following thyroid surgery. Surgery 2013; 154: 1346–52, discussion 1352–53.
116 Hauch A, Al-Qurayshi Z, Randolph G, Kandil E. Total thyroidectomy is associated with increased risk of complications for low- and high-volume surgeons. Ann Surg Oncol 2014; 21: 3844–52.
117 Akamizu T, Satoh T, Isozaki O, et al, and the Japan Thyroid Association. Diagnostic criteria, clinical features, and incidence of thyroid storm based on nationwide surveys. Thyroid 2012;22: 661–79.
118 Klubo-Gwiezdzinska J, Wartofsky L. Thyroid emergencies. Med Clin North Am 2012; 96: 385–403.
119 Swee D S, Chng CL, Lim A. Clinical characteristics and outcome of thyroid storm: a case series and review of neuropsychiatric derangements in thyrotoxicosis. Endocr Pract 2015; 21: 182–89
120 Angell TE, Lechner MG, Nguyen CT, Salvato VL, Nicoloff JT, LoPresti JS. Clinical features and hospital outcomes in thyroid storm: a retrospective cohort study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015; 100: 451–59.
121 Burch HB, Wartofsky L. Life-threatening thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid storm. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1993; 22: 263–77.
122 Pearce EN, Hennessey JV, McDermott MT. New American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists guidelines for thyrotoxicosis and other forms of hyperthyroidism: signifi cant progress for the clinician and a guide to future research. Thyroid 2011; 21: 573–76.
123 Kaykhaei MA, Shams M, Sadegholvad A, Dabbaghmanesh MH, Omrani GR. Low doses of cholestyramine in the treatment of hyperthyroidism. Endocrine 2008; 34: 52–55.
124 Tsatsoulis A, Johnson EO, Kalogera CH, Seferiadis K, Tsolas O. The eff ect of thyrotoxicosis on adrenocortical reserve. Eur J Endocrinol 2000; 142: 231–35.
125 Milner MR, Gelman KM, Phillips RA, Fuster V, Davies TF, Goldman ME. Double-blind crossover trial of diltiazem versus propranolol in the management of thyrotoxic symptoms. Pharmacotherapy 1990; 10: 100–06.
126 Isozaki O, Satoh T, Wakino S, et al. Treatment and management of thyroid storm: analysis of the nationwide surveys: The taskforce committee of the Japan Thyroid Association and Japan Endocrine Society for the establishment of diagnostic criteria and nationwide surveys for thyroid storm. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2015; published online Sep 21.DOI:10.1111/cen.12949.
127 Korelitz JJ, McNally DL, Masters MN, Li SX, Xu Y, Rivkees SA. Prevalence of thyrotoxicosis, antithyroid medication use, and complications among pregnant women in the United States. Thyroid 2013; 23: 758–65.
128 Andersen SL, Olsen J, Carle A, Laurberg P. Hyperthyroidism incidence fl uctuates widely in and around pregnancy and is at variance with some other autoimmune diseases: a Danish population-based study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015; 100: 1164–71.
129 Stagnaro-Green A, Abalovich M, Alexander E, et al, and the American Thyroid Association Taskforce on Thyroid Disease During Pregnancy and Postpartum. Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and postpartum. Thyroid 2011; 21: 1081–125.
130 De Groot L, Abalovich M, Alexander EK, et al. Management of thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy and postpartum: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97: 2543–65.
131 Gianetti E, Russo L, Orlandi F, et al. Pregnancy outcome in women treated with methimazole or propylthiouracil during pregnancy. J Endocrinol Invest 2015; 38: 977–85.
132 Andersen SL, Olsen J, Wu CS, Laurberg P. Birth defects after early pregnancy use of antithyroid drugs: a Danish nationwide study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013; 98: 4373–81.
133 Yoshihara A, Noh J, Yamaguchi T, et al. Treatment of Graves’ disease with antithyroid drugs in the fi rst trimester of pregnancy and the prevalence of congenital malformation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97: 2396–403.
134 Bowman P, Vaidya B. Suspected spontaneous reports of birth defects in the UK associated with the use of carbimazole and propylthiouracil in pregnancy. J Thyroid Res 2011; 2011: 235130.
135 Pearce EN. Thyroid disorders during pregnancy and postpartum. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2015; 29: 700–06.
136 Lee RH, Spencer CA, Mestman JH, et al. Free T4 immunoassays are fl awed during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009; 200: e1–6.
137 Ide A, Amino N, Kang S, et al. Diff erentiation of postpartum Graves’ thyrotoxicosis from postpartum destructive thyrotoxicosis using antithyrotropin receptor antibodies and thyroid blood fl ow. Thyroid 2014; 24: 1027–31.
138 Pearce EN, Farwell AP, Braverman LE. Thyroiditis. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 2646–55.
139 Kubota S, Nishihara E, Kudo T, Ito M, Amino N, Miyauchi A. Initial treatment with 15 mg of prednisolone daily is suffi cient for most patients with subacute thyroiditis in Japan. Thyroid 2013; 23: 269–72.
140 Stagnaro-Green A. Approach to the patient with postpartum thyroiditis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97: 334–42.
141 Eskes SA, Endert E, Fliers E, et al. Treatment of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis type 2: a randomized clinical trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97: 499–506.

 

Comentarios

Para ver los comentarios de sus colegas o para expresar su opinión debe ingresar con su cuenta de IntraMed.

AAIP RNBD
Términos y condiciones de uso | Política de privacidad | Todos los derechos reservados | Copyright 1997-2024