La sal en la salud y la enfermedad: Un delicado equilibrio

1. Daniels D, Fluharty SJ. Salt appetite: a neurohormonal viewpoint. Physiol Behav 2004; 81: 319-37.
2. Morris MJ, Na ES, Johnson AK. Salt craving: the psychobiology of pathogenic sodium intake. Physiol Behav 2008;94: 709-21.
3. Leshem M. Biobehavior of the human love of salt. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2009; 33:1-17.
4. Frost CD, Law MR, Wald NJ. By how much does dietary salt reduction lower blood pressure? Analysis of observational data within populations. BMJ 1991;302: 815-8
5. Simpson FO. Blood pressure and sodium intake. In: Laragh JH, Brenner BM, eds. Hypertension: pathology, diagnosis, and management. New York: Raven Press, 1990:205-15.
6. Law MR, Frost CD, Wald NJ. By how much does dietary salt reduction lower boold pressure? Analysis of observational -data among populations. BMJ 1991;302 811-5.
7. Intersalt Cooperative Research Group. Intersalt: an international study of electrolyte excretion and blood pressure: results of 24-hour urinary sodium and potassium. BMJ 1988; 297:319-28.
8. Elliot P, Stamler J, Nichols R, et al. Intersalt revisited: further analyses of 24 hour sodium excretion and blood pressure within and across populations. BMJ 1996; 312:1249-53.
9. Simons-Morton DG, Obarzanek E. Diet and blood pressure in children and adolescents. Pediatr Nephrol 1997;11: 244-9.
10. Midgley JP, Matthew AG, Greenwood CM, Logan AG. Effect of reduced dietary sodium on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA 1996;275:1590-7.
11. Cutler JA, Follmann D, Allender PS. Randomized trials of sodium reduction: an overview. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;65: Suppl:643S-651S.
12. Graudal NA, Galløe AM, Garred P. Effects of sodium restriction on blood pressure, renin, aldosterone, catecholamines, cholesterols, and triglyceride: a meta-analysis. JAMA 1998;279:1383-91.
13. He FJ, MacGregor GA. Effect of modest salt reduction on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. J Hum Hypertens 2002; 16:761-70.
14. Idem. Importance of salt in determining blood pressure in children: meta-analysis of controlled trials. Hypertension 2006; 48:861-9.
15. Graudal NA, Hubeck-Graudal T, Jürgens G. Effects of low-sodium diet vs. high-sodium diet on blood pressure, renin, aldosterone, catecholamines, cholesterol, and triglyceride (Cochrane Review). Am J Hypertens 2012; 25:1-15.
16. Weinberger MH, Miller JZ, Luft FC, Grim CE, Fineberg NS. Definitions and characteristics of sodium sensitivity and blood pressure resistance. Hypertension 1986;8:Suppl II:II-127–II-134.
17. Hall JE, Mizelle GH, Hildebrandt DA, Brands MW. Abnormal pressure natriuresis: a cause or a consequence of hypertension? Hypertension 1990; 15:547-59.
18. Fujita T. Mineralocorticoid receptors, salt-sensitive hypertension, and metabolic syndrome. Hypertension 2010; 55:813-8.
19. Kotchen TA, Kotchen JM. Nutrition, diet, and hypertension. In: Shils ME, Shike M, Ross AC, Caballero B, Cousins RJ, eds. Modern nutrition in health and disease. 10th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006:1095-107.
20. Boegehold MA, Kotchen TA. Importance of dietary chloride for salt sensitivity of blood pressure Hypertension 1991; 17:Suppl I:I-158–I-161.
21. Mattson DL, Dwinell MR, Greene AS, et al. Chromosome substitution reveals the genetic basis of Dahl salt-sensitive hypertension and renal disease. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2008; 295:F837-F842.
22. Koleganova N, Piecha A, Ritz E, et al. Both high and low maternal salt intake in pregnancy alter kidney development in the offspring. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2011; 301:F344-F354.
23. Luft FC, Rankin LI, Bloch R, et al. Cardiovascular and humoral responses to extremes of sodium intakes in normal black and white men. Circulation 1979; 60:697-706.
24. Svetkey LP, McKeown SP, Wilson AF. Heritability of salt sensitivity in black Americans. Hypertension 1996; 28:854-8.
25. Miller JZ, Weinberger MH, Christian JC, Daugherty SA. Familial resemblance in the blood pressure response to sodium restriction. Am J Epidemiol 1987; 126:822-30.
26. Grim CE, Miller JZ, Luft FC, Christian JC, Weinberger MH. Genetic influences on renin, aldosterone, and the renal excretion of sodium and potassium following volume expansion and contraction in normal man. Hypertension 1979; 1:583-90.
27. Lifton RP. Molecular genetics of human blood pressure variation. Science 1996; 272: 676-80.
28. Ji W, Foo JN, O’Roak BJ, et al. Rare independent mutations in renal salt handling genes contribute to blood pressure variation. Nat Genet 2008; 40:592-9.
29. Beeks E, Kessels AGH, Kroon AA, van der Klauw MM, de Leeuw PW. Genetic pre -disposition to salt-sensitivity: a systematic review. J Hypertens 2004; 22:1243-9.
30. Carey RM, Schoeffel CD, Gildea JJ, et al. Salt sensitivity of blood pressure is associated with polymorphisms in the sodium-bicarbonate cotransporter. Hypertension 2012; 60:1359-66.
31. Bibbins-Domingo K, Chertow GM, Coxson PG, et al. Projected effect of dietary salt  reductions on future cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 2010; 362:590-9.
32. Strazzullo P, D’Elia L, Kandala NB Cappuccio FP. Salt intake, stroke, and car -diovascular disease: meta-analysis of prospective studies. BMJ 2009; 339:b4567.
33. Takachi R, Inoue M, Shimazu T, et al. Consumption of sodium and salted foods in relation to cancer and cardiovascular disease: the Japan Public Health Center-based Prospective Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2010; 91:456-64.
34. Yang Q, Liu T, Kuklina EV, et al. So-dium and potassium intake and mortality among US adults: prospective data from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arch Intern Med 2011; 171:1183-91.
35. Gardener H, Rundek T, Wright CB, Dietary sodium and the risk of stroke in the Northern Manhattan Study. Stroke 2012; 43:1200-5.
36. Stolarz-Skrzypek K, Kuznetsova T, Thijs L, et al. Fatal and nonfatal outcomes, incidence of hypertension, and blood pressure changes in relation to urinary sodium excretion. JAMA 2011; 305:1777-85
37. O’Donnell MJ, Yusuf S, Mente A, et al. Urinary sodium and potassium excretion and risk of cardiovascular events. JAMA 2011; 306:2229-38.
38. Umesawa M, Iso H, Date C, et al. Relations between dietary sodium and potassium  intakes and mortality from cardiovascular disease: the Japan Collaborative Cohort Study for Evaluation of Cancer Risks. Am J Clin Nutr 2008; 88:195-202.
39. Cook NR, Cutler JA, Obarzanek E, et al. Long term effects of dietary sodium reduction on cardiovascular disease outcomes: observational follow-up of the Trials of Hypertension  Prevention (TOHP). BMJ 2007; 334:885-8.
40. Chang H-Y, Hu Y-W, Yue C-SJ, et al. Effect of potassium enriched salt on cardiovascular mortality and medical expenses of elderly men. Am J Clin Nutr 2006; 83:1289-96.
41. Whelton PK, Appel LJ, Espeland MA, et al. Sodium reduction and weight loss in the treatment of hipertension in older persons: a randomized controlled Trial of Nonpharmacologic Interventions in the Elderly (TONE). JAMA 1998; 279:839-46. [Erratum, JAMA 1998;279:1954.]
42. Taylor RS, Ashton KE, Moxham T, Hooper L, Ebrahim S. Reduced dietary salt for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis of randomized control trials (Cochrane  Review). Am J Hypertens 2011; 24:843-53.
43. He FJ, MacGregor GA. Salt reduction lowers cardiovascular risk: meta-analysis of outcome trials. Lancet 2011; 378:380-2.
44. Thomas MC, Morgan J, Forsblom C, et al. The association between dietary sodium intake, ESRD, and all-cause mortality in patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2011; 34:861-6.
45. Ekinci EI, Clarke S, Thomas MC, et al. Dietary salt intake and mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2011; 34:703-9.
46. Paterna S, Gaspare P, Fasullo S, Sarullo FM, Di Pasquale P. Normal-sodium diet  compared with low-sodium diet in compensated congestive heart failure: is sodium an old enemy or a new friend? Clin Sci 2008; 114:221-30.
47. Paterna S, Parrinello G, Cannizzaro S, et al. Medium term effects of different dosage of diuretic, sodium, and fluid administration on neurohormonal and clinical outcome in patients with recently compensated heart failure. Am J Cardiol 2009; 103:93-102.
48. Lambers Heerspink HJ, Navis G, Ritz E. Salt intake in kidney disease — a missed therapeutic opportunity? Nephrol Dial Transplant 2012; 27:3435-42.
49. Cowley AW Jr, Roman R. The role of the kidney in hypertension. JAMA 1996; 275:1581-9.
50. Cowley AW Jr. Long-term control of arterial blood pressure. Physiol Rev 1992; 72:231-300.
51. Machnik A, Neuhofer W, Jantsch J, et al. Macrophages regulate salt-dependent volume and blood pressure by a vascular endothelial growth factor-C-dependent buffering mechanism. Nat Med 2009;15: 545-52.
52. Machnik A, Dahlmann A, Kopp C, et al. Mononuclear phagocytes system depletion blocks interstitial tonicity-responsive enhancer binding protein/vascular endothelial growth factor C expression and induces salt-sensitive hypertension in rats. Hypertension 2010; 55:755-61.
53. Sanders PW. Vascular consequences of dietary saltintake. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2009; 297:F237-F243.
54. Frohlich ED, Susic D. Sodium and its multiorgan targets. Circulation 2011; 124: 1882-5.
55. Liu Y, Rusch NJ, Lombard JH. Loss of endothelium and receptor-mediated dilation in pial arteries of rats fed a short-term high sal diet. Hypertension 1999; 33:686-8.
56. Varagic J, Frohlich ED, Diez J, et  al. Myocardial fibrosis, impaired coronary hemodynamics, and biventricular dysfunction in salt-loaded SHR. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2006; 290:H1503-H1509.
57. Matavelli LC, Zhou X, Varagic J, Susic D, Frohlich ED. Salt loading produces severe renal hemodynamic dysfunction independent of arterial pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Am J Physiol
58. Varagic J, Frohlich ED, Susic D, et al. AT1  receptor antagonism attenuates target organ effects of salt excess in SHRs without affecting pressure. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2008; 294:H853-H858.
59. Susic D, Frohlich ED, Kobori H, Shao W, Seth D, Navar LG. Salt-induced renal injury in SHRs is mediated by AT1  receptor activation. J Hypertens 2011; 29:716-23.
60. Safar ME, Temmar M, Kakou A, Lacolley P, Thornton SN. Sodium intake and vascular stiffness in hypertension. Hypertension 2009; 54:203-9.
61. Kotchen TA. Sodium chloride and aldosterone: harbingers of hypertension-related cardiovascular disease. Hypertension 2009; 54:449-50.
62. Acelajado MC, Pimenta E, Calhoun DA. Salt and aldosterone: a concert of bad effects. Hypertension 2010; 56:804-5.
63. Pimenta E, Gaddam KK, Pratt-Ubunama MN, et al. Relation of dietary salt and aldosterone to urinary protein excretion in subjects with resistant hypertension. Hypertension 2008; 51:339-44.
64. Jin Y, Kuznetsova T, Maillard M, et al. Independent relations of left ventricular structure with the 24-hour urinary excretion of sodio and aldosterone. Hypertension 2009; 54:489-95.
65. du Cailar G, Fesler P, Ribstein J, Mimran A. Dietary sodium, aldosterone, and left ventricular mass changes during long-term inhibition of the renin-angiotensin system. Hypertension 2010; 56:865-70.
66. Ott C, Tietze SI, Schwarz TK, et al. High sodium intake modulates left ventricular mass in patients with G expression of +1675 G/A angiotensin II receptor type 2 gene. J Hypertens 2007; 25:1627-32.
67. Vaidya A, Bentley-Lewis R, Jeunemaitre X, Adler GK, Williams JS. Dietary sodium alters the prevalence of electrocardiogram determined left ventricular hypertrophy in hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2009; 22: 669-73.
68. Du Cailar G, Ribstein J, Mimran A. Dietary sodium and target organ damage in essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2002; 15:222-9.
69. Hummel SL, Seymour EM, Brook RD, et al. Low-sodium Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension diet reduces blood pressure, arterial stiffness, and oxidative stress in hypertensive heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. Hypertension 2012; 60:1200-6.
74. Dietary guidelines for Americans. 6th ed. Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services, Department of Agriculture, 2005.
75. Department of Agriculture, Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary guidelines for Americans,  2010. 7th ed. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, December 2010.
76. Whelton PK, Appel LJ, Sacco RL, et al. Sodium, blood pressure and cardiovascular  disease: further evidence supporting the American Heart Association sodium reduction  recommendations. Circulation 2012; 126:2880-9.
77. Sodium intake among adults — United States, 2005–2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2010; 59:746-9.
78. Institute of Medicine. Strategies to reduce sodium intake in the United States. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2010.
79. Bayer R, Johns DM, Galea S. Salt and public health: contested science and the challenge of evidence-based decision making. Health Aff (Millwood) 2012; 31: 2738-46.
80. Nicholls MG. Population-wide dietary sodium restriction: a cautious view. Curr Hypertens Rep 2011; 13:325-7.
81. Heagerty AM. Community sodium reduction: is it worth the effort? Am J Hypertens 2012; 25:22.
82. Alderman MH, Cohen HW. Dietary sodium intake and cardiovascular mortality: controversy resolved? Curr Hypertens Rep 2012; 14:193-201.
83. Furberg CD. Public health policies: no place for surrogates. Am J Hypertens 2012; 25:21.
84. Institute of Medicine. Committee on the consequences of sodium reduction in populations (http://www.iom.edu/Activities/Nutrition/Consequences SodiumReduction.aspx).
85. Siagman MC, Waanders F, Hemmelder MH, et al. Moderate dietary sodium restriction added to angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition compared with dual blockade in lowering proteinuria and blood pressure: randomized controlled trial. BMJ 2011; 343:d4366.
86. Pimenta E, Gaddam KK, Oparil S, et al. Effects of dietary sodium reduction on blood pressure in subjects with resistant hypertension: results from a randomized trial. Hypertension 2009; 54:475-81.